Inspirational Quote 1 George S. Patton

Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf Articulates the Crises...

Edward Albees (1928) play Whos Afraid Of Virginia Woolf? (1961-62) exhibits concern with the crises of faith of contemporary western civilization. This thematic concern is rooted in two sources. First it establishes a link with the dramatists of the thirties such as Eugene ONeill (1888-1953), Tennessee Williams (1911-1983) and Arthur Miller (1915-2005). These dramatists had in their plays critiqued America as it moved from confidence to doubt. In a land of success they wrote obsessively of the unsuccessful. Their characters such as Blanch Du Bois in Street Car Named Desire(1947), Joe Keller in All My Sons (1947), Willie Loman in Death of a Salesman (1949) and Maggie the Cat in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958) all lead posthumous†¦show more content†¦The social and spiritual reasons for such a sense of loss of meaning are manifold and complex: the waning of religious faith that had started with the Enlightenment and led Nietzsche to speak of the death of God by the eighteen-eighties; the breakdown of the liberal faith in inevitable social progress in the wake of the First World War; the disillusionment with the hopes of radical social revolution as predicted by Marx af ter Stalin had turned the Soviet Union into a totalitarian tyranny; the relapse into barbarism, mass murder, and genocide in the course of Hitlers brief rule over Europe during the Second World War; and, in the aftermath of that war, the spread of spiritual emptiness in the outwardly prosperous and affluent societies of Western Europe and the United States. For many the world of the mid twentieth century lost its meaning and simply ceased to make sense. In the first act Fun and Games, George articulates this sense of disillusionment in his recognition that people learn nothing from history thereby demonstrating a potential to repeat the past horrors. Also there is a deep suspicion regarding the intentions of science which seeks to formulate a super civilization by rearranging chromosomes so as to make everyone like everyone else. These two forces namely a critique of American Dream and the mid twentieth century existential angst can be found exerting pressures on the

Electronic Journals And Scholarly Communication Essay Research free essay sample

Electronic Diaries And Scholarly Communication Essay, Research Paper Electronic Diaries and Scholarly Communication In recent old ages, scholarly communicating has virtually exploded into the online electronic universe. This has brought a figure of incontrovertible benefits to the scholarly communicating procedure every bit good as foregrounding a figure of inefficiencies and obstructions to the full deployment of information engineering. However, the detonation has besides brought a batch of credulous histories refering the transformative potency of information engineering. These histories, though good intentioned, do non lend to a sociological apprehension of information engineering in general, or its consequence on the scholarly communicating procedure more specifically. In order to develop our apprehension of the relevant issues, a critical and empirical analysis will necessitate to be undertaken in order to acquire out from under the cultural values that have clouded the analysis of information engineering therefore far. Introduction ( 1 ) In merely a few short old ages the Internet has seen a dramatic growing in the sum of scholarly stuff available. Some sense of the rate of growing of electronic diaries is given by the Association of Research Librarians directory of electronic diaries. [ 1 ] In 1991 there were 110 diaries and academic newssheets listed in their directory. This grew to 133 in 1992, 240 in 1993, 400 in 1994 ( Okerson, 1994 ) and 700+ in 1995. There has besides been singular growing in the figure of refereed electronic diaries from 74 in 1994 to 142 in 1995 ( Okerson, 1995 ) . Maverick electronic diaries are no longer entirely on the Internet. A twine of enterprises has placed a arresting sum of textual stuff on-line for purchase or direct retrieval. For illustration publication companies and University imperativenesss ( Duxbury, 1994 ) , acknowledging both the promise and menace of electronic publication, have begun to put up store on the cyberspace. In add-on, there are a figure of enterprises designed to reproduce authoritative and modern texts by digital imagination or SGML [ 2 ] markup. [ 3 ] The EJS has experienced similar growing. From sporadic entree to the WWW waiter merely over a twelvemonth ago when the diary was founded, we are now viewed by over 1500 persons each month from 38 states around the universe. Most paperss are served to the United States, Canada, Australia, Germany and Sweden. However entree by other states is steadily increasing. [ 4 ] Curiously though, the EJS remains virtually the lone diary devoted to sociology on the cyberspace. At the clip of this authorship, the Yahoo index [ 5 ] , by and large considered the most comprehensive index for the WWW, of Sociology Journals contains two listings. One is for the Electronic Journal of Sociology and the other for a Magyar diary entitled Replika. In this paper, I will supply an overview of the issues environing the outgrowth of electronic diary publication while trying to associate them to our experience at the Electronic Journal of Sociology. Some of these issues are straightforward and include the way in which e-publication is traveling, the benefits of electronic publication, and the obstructions to its full deployment. These I will cover with in the first two subdivisions of the paper. However there are currents in the emerging arguments which are strongly evocative of the popular and semi-academic eulogiums to the transformative and radical impact of engineering and information engineering ( Toffler, 1980 ; 1990 ; Levy, 1984 ; 1992 ; McLuhan, 1969 ) . These claims are as indefensible now as they have ever been. Therefore an extra undertaking will be to supply a counter point to what sums to an noncritical credence of the discourse on radical alteration as it pertains to the detonation of electronic publication. Benefits ( 5 ) Printing scholarly stuff electronically carries with it a figure of widely recognized benefits. Almost all of those who care to notice on the topic acknowledge the highly low cost of bring forthing electronic texts, the high velocity at which consequences can be distributed, and the sophisticated entree to academic stuff through hunt tools and database maps that is possible with electronic publication ( Readings, 1994 ) as benefits likely to earnestly dispute traditional manners of pass oning scholarly information. Indeed, many have commented on the likely death of tradition paper based scholarly publication ( Harnad, 1991 ; Naylor and Harnad, 1994 ) in the following 10 to 50 old ages and some ( Harnad 1994 ) have attempted to rush the twenty-four hours when all academic publication is done electronically. The concern to acquire rid of traditional paper based diaries is based on the acknowledgment that with the new engineerings, faculty members can administer their ain stuff more efficaciously than the traditional publication houses. There is besides a turning consciousness that traditional publishing houses add really small to the procedure of scholarly publication. Some so argue forcefully that it makes small sense to turn over scholarly work to publishing houses since the lone existent map they of all time performed was to administer stuff to libraries and that this service is non deserving the added cost or the relinquishment of right of first publication ( Ginsparg, 1994 ) . In order to understand this strong rejection of the position quo of scholarly publication, we will necessitate to take a closer expression at the kineticss and benefits of printing our work electronically. Cost In recent decennaries, the cost of seriess and monographs has skyrocketed and the figure of library acquisitions has remained steady or declined. [ 6 ] This lifting cost of journal publication, coupled with the explosive growing in research and the attendant detonation of paper diaries in the assorted subjects, [ 7 ] has made it impossible for most libraries to keep a comprehensive choice of literature. [ 8 ] This basically contradicts the turning demand for information represented by turning specialisation in most subjects. Simply put, the demands of bookmans can non be met by the current paper based publication system. These factors have combined to make intense force per unit area to happen alternate ways of administering academic stuff. Printing diaries electronically promises to supply a solution to what some have termed a crises. There can be no uncertainty that printing an electronic diary costs less than printing a paper diary. [ 9 ] At the really minimal, printing and typesetting costs are eliminated. However, e-publication besides carries with it the possible to manage submitted texts electronically. This potentially eliminates the demand for a figure of mediators or support places. As good, it reduces or eliminates mail costs. Rather than trusting on a figure of mediators, editors who receive entries electronically can merely send on entries to peer referees who so make an optional printout of the paper and e-mail their remarks back to the editor. Accepted documents can besides be handled electronically once more significantly cut downing managing costs and administrative operating expense. # 8220 ; Typesetting, # 8221 ; which in the electronic universe sums to nil more than arranging the papers and change overing it to ASCII, HTML, TEI, TeX, or Postscript for distribution, can be done either by the editor or by a parttime column helper. However there is besides the potency to streamline this procedure even further. Because the texts are electronic, it is a comparatively simple affair to compose package or word processor macros that assist in the transition procedure. Should editors take this path, the slot usually associated with editorial helpers can be eliminated wholly. ( 10 ) Further nest eggs can be had by take downing the aesthetic criterions of academic publication. Odlyzko ( 1994 ) argues that the pretty page covers, aesthetically delighting page layouts, and article and commendation standardisation are artefacts of a system of scholarly publication one time removed from the bookmans themselves. He farther argues that if bookmans were presented with the true cost of supplying these column services, they might in fact choose to acquire by without. A few old ages ago, drastic lessenings in the costs of diaries would hold meant traveling from Cadillacs to bikes, with diaries dwelling of stapled aggregations of mimeographed transcripts. However, with the progresss in engineering described in old subdivisions, we can now easy travel to something that is at least at the degree of a Chevy in luxury, and in add-on has the cross-country capablenesss of a chopper # 8230 ; . Many of the characteristics of the bing system would be gone, as a typical paper might be processed by merely a individual redacting Renaissance man who would unite many of the functions of today # 8217 ; s editors, transcript editors, and proofreaders. The uniformity of visual aspect of documents in a diary might be gone. Would that be a great loss, though? Should non the unit of scholarly publication be the single paper, and non the diary issue? For bulky paper publications, it was natural to roll up them into larger bundles. Most of the clip, though, a scholar reads or even skims merely a twosome of articles per issue. Since most of the literature seeking involves traveling between different diaries with different formats, why fuss to maintain unvarying manner in each diary? A unvarying manner of diary mentions besides contributes to the quality of present publications. However, merely how valuable is it, and how valuable will it be in the hereafter, when each mention might hold a hypertext nexus to the paper being referenced, or at least something like the URL reference? The lone important costs associated with printing stuff electronically are those associated with the attempts of the column board and the equal referees of the diary, and with the costs for storage and transmittal of electronic texts. However many editors are non paid and it is highly unusual to compensate editorial board members or peer referees. [ 10 ] These parts are most frequently done on a unpaid footing though it could be argued that their several establishments pick up the check for the clip they spend on the diary or reexamining entries. Yet even if we were to factor in the cost of the voluntary column and reappraisal maps, the benefits of managing texts electronically would still cut down the cost in comparing to that associated with paper publication. As for electronic storage and transmittal costs, these are now rather fiddling. In 1994, Paul Ginsparg ( 1994 ) noted that cost for G of storage was under $ 700. This meant that the 25,000 natural philosophies documents published each twelvemonth could be stored for approximately 3 cents each. Since that clip the cost for a G of storage has plummeted to about $ 300 a G therefore farther trivialising the cost of storage. However even in 1994, Odlyzko could reason that the cost to hive away all current mathematical publications would be less than the subscription cost for one paper based diary! As to the cost of cyberspace connects, these are by and large shared among all members of an organisation. Odlyzko ( 1994 ) noted that even with the recent backdown of NSF support for the Internet substructure and the move to commercialisation, academic storage and transmittal should stay fiddling because web transmittal will hold to stay inexpensive plenty for commercial applications ( images, films, etc. ) . He concludes by observing that the cost of fast cyberspace connect will stay less expensive than the cost of a good aggregation of paper diaries for merely 1 subject. Estimates as to the cost nest eggs of printing stuff electronically range from a depression of 25 % of paper based publication costs to a high of 75 % ( Garson, Ginsparg and Harnad, 1994 ) . The fluctuation in estimations seems to be discipline specific. The cost of printing humanistic disciplines diaries where typesetting demands are minimum is lower than say printing chemical diaries where complex tabular arraies, math, artworks, and particular characters need to be incorporated and where the labor required to integrate these is intensive [ 11 ] . The EJS is a good illustration of the far terminal of the cost-reduction spectrum. From the really start we have exploited the potency of the information engineering to the bound. Although we have a letterhead, 99 % of our correspondence is electronic. Documents are submitted and distributed for equal reappraisal electronically. Writers are informed of alterations and rejections electronically, and documents, one time accepted, are formatted and typeset on my computing machine utilizing package freely available through public sphere, shareware, or the GNU public licence. ( 15 ) Because I have the duty for transcript redaction, typesetting, production and distribution, I have been motivated to larn to plan macros in assorted word processors and to larn the powerful programming linguistic communication PERL. [ 12 ] I have therefore been able to compose books and plans that take over many of the humble undertakings of publication like look intoing whether to see there are one or two infinites after each period. In this manner I have reduced significantly the entire sum of labor required to bring forth a individual issue of the diary. If I were to give an estimation, I would likely state that it takes me 4 hours of redacting and typesetting to bring forth one volume of our diary in both HTML and ASCII formats. And this without loosen uping to far the aesthetic criterions of our publication. I have to acknowledge that so far the type scene demands of the diary have been minimum. We have had to cover with few tabular arraies and no math arranging. In add-on, except for one article by Cuneo ( 1995 ) , there has been no effort to to the full work the multimedia capablenesss of the WWW. However the capablenesss of WWW are continually being expanded and there is every ground to believe that sociologists will get down to take full advantage of the capablenesss for artworks, sound and even video cartridge holders. Should it be necessary to cover with tabular arraies, graphs, and multimedia, the labor demands of the diary could increase drastically. At that point, institutional support would go a demand. On the other manus, as the tools for printing on the WWW go more sophisticated, even the labor associated with these undertakings may be reduced to undistinguished degrees. Because the WWW and HTML is still developing, it is still excessively shortly to come to any decisions. One concluding remark before traveling on. The important decrease in the cost of bring forthing electronic diaries has one accessory benefit. It eliminates concern over page length. Traditionally, paper based diaries have placed rigorous bounds on the length of articles they would print. This of class has everything to make with the cost per page of publication and nil to make with the demands of scholarly communicating. This limitation may hold had an excessive influence on the manner of cutting border scholarly discourse which, because of the demand to pack as much information into 10,000 words as possible, is frequently thick and hard to wade through, obtuse, and even # 8220 ; on occasion # 8221 ; ill written. This has resulted in some instances in a discourse that, though non deliberately so, is basically exclusionary. With the coming of electronic publication this consecutive jacket is removed since it costs fractions of a penny more to print a 60 page papers than a 30 page pa pers. Of class, whether or non this will hold a important impact on scholarly discourse is an empirical inquiry. Speed Much more interesting than the decrease in cost, from the bookman # 8217 ; s point of position anyhow, is the important addition in the velocity of academic discourse that can be achieved via electronic publication. We are all familiar with the traditional holds associated with paper based publication. Indeed, it is non uncommon to hold to wait 2 old ages ( or more if alterations are required ) from the day of the month that a entry is received by a diary to the day of the month that it eventually appears in print. Most of this hold is caused by holds in the postal service. The entry must go from writer to editor, and from editor to referees. Once the manuscript has reached the referee, some extra hold can be expected because of the low degree of precedence frequently given to reexamining for paper based diaries. As a consequence, brown manilla envelopes that contain manuscripts for reappraisal can frequently travel ignored more hebdomads. Once reviewed, there are extra postal holds. Reviewer remarks must go back to the editor and be processed before eventually making their finish in the custodies of the anticipant writer. Unless the paper has been accepted for reappraisal as is, ( an highly improbable contingency ) the procedure needs to be repeated a 2nd clip. ( 20 ) Even when the paper eventually appears in print, there is still a important delay before the paper achieves its full impact on the field. Indeed, as Steve Harnad ( 1991 ) points out articulately, because of the long hold, the writer may hold lost involvement in prosecuting the original line and therefore the work may neer accomplish its full possible impact. # 8230 ; now the writer must wait until his equals really read and react in some manner to his work, integrating it into their theory, making farther experiments, or otherwise researching the branchings of his [ sic ] part # 8230 ; . [ this ] normally takes several old ages # 8230 ; and by that clip the writer, more likely than non, is believing about something else. So a potentially critical spiral of equal interactions, had it taken topographic point in # 8216 ; existent # 8217 ; cognitive clip, neer materializes, and infinite thoughts are alternatively doomed to stay abortive. The perpetrator is once more the factor of temp: the fact that the written medium is hopelessly out of synch with the thought mechanism and the organic potency it would hold for rapid interaction if merely there were a medium that could back up the needed unit of ammunitions of feedback, in tempo giusto! ( Harnad, 1991: 44 ) . In the electronic kingdom, the gait of academic discourse can be accelerated and the long and frequently frustrating holds eliminated. At the EJS we have no postal holds. Submitted documents are in the electronic mail boxes of referees normally a few proceedingss after I log on to my university history. Sometimes I need to change over the entry to ASCII and this may add a twenty-four hours or two if I don # 8217 ; t have the clip to make the transition instantly. But even this hold is undistinguished. Our board members and referees usually take a few yearss to no longer than two hebdomads to finish their reappraisal. Once I have received their remarks in my electronic mail box, I have to do my concluding determination. Again, depending on my work burden, this can take anyplace from a few proceedingss to two hebdomads. After the determination, I inform the writer electronically. If the paper is accepted, or after the writer has completed alterations, the following measure is to arrange, transcript edit, and change over it to HTML and ASCII. Without breaks, this takes about an hr depending on the complexness of the piece. Once this is completed, the article can be sent to the writer for a concluding once over and so placed on the web page. Entire clip from entry to publication is 7 yearss to 2 months and in ideal instances, two yearss is non unreasonable! Delaies enter into the procedure when the writer has to finish alterations to the paper. Since most of our entries require some kind of alteration, these holds are regular happenings. However, possibly as a direct consequence of holding had their entries handled rapidly, most writers complete their alterations apace. So, even with this added hold, it is still possible to print a paper in every bit small as a month from the clip it is foremost submitted. ( 25 ) Clearly this is a quantum clip nest eggs and the benefits are potentially tremendous. Harnad ( 1990 ) has written extensively about the potencies of the new medium. Scholarly enquiry in this new medium will continue much more rapidly, interactively, and globally ; and it is likely to go a batch more participatory, though possibly besides more depersonalized, with thoughts propagating and commuting on the net in waies over which their conceivers would be unable ( and so possibly unwilling ) to claim proprietary. An single # 8217 ; s compensation for the lessened proprietary, nevertheless, would be the possibility of much greater rational productiveness in one life-time, and this is possibly scholarly skywriting # 8217 ; s greatest wages. As Harnad suggests, there is a possible to inspire academic arguments. Articles published in diaries frequently elicit peer commentary. However this commentary can look in the diaries months after the article was ab initio published and old ages after it was ab initio submitted. In the electronic kingdom commentary can look yearss after the article is published and hebdomads after it was foremost submitted. Indeed, direct electronic mail links can even be provided from the writer # 8217 ; s signature in the article and observers can easy reach the writer straight with remarks or petitions for information. In it imaginable that planetary research partnerships could organize between those with similar involvements with no more attempt than that needed to snap on the writer # 8217 ; s name in the article. From the really start, the EJS has provided automatic mail links to promote this kind of planetary networking. It is further possible to widen the procedure of commentary and do it more participatory as Harnad suggests. The EJS has installed and is presently proving package that will let our readers to notice on entries online. Responses will be archived in # 8220 ; forums # 8221 ; assigned to each entry and anyone in the universe will be able to reexamine the archived remarks. We plan on doing this package available for initial public testing in January of 1996. Entree If you have read through to this point, so you know that electronic publication offers immensely increased entree to scholarly stuff. You are likely reading this from your place or office computing machine. You have non had to pay a subscription fee for this convenience and you have non had to do a arduous trip to the library. You will besides hold noted that I have provided hypertext links to about all of the in this paper. You are therefore easy able to look into on the truth of my commendations and the usage to which I put them -or even do transcripts of them yourself with the local optical maser pressman. Again, no bothersome seeking through libraries. You have easy, speedy, elegant entree to all the stuff you need to read this article. It merely doesn # 8217 ; t acquire any better than this. Or does it. From my position, it was a joy to research this paper. Most of the stuff of any effect to electronic publication is online and freely available. All I had to make to garner the stuff to compose this paper was use powerful WWW hunt engines, follow hypertext links, browse articles, and publish the 1s that I wanted to utilize. In the procedure I expanded my ain library of stuff, stored electronically of class, for future mention. The research procedure was easy and speedy. All in all I likely spent less than 8 hours roll uping stuff. If I had to do multiple trips to our university library, 8 hours would hold been consumed in the commute and hunt for parking infinite entirely. ( 30 ) Ease of entree is non the lone benefit. There is a possible for expanded institutional and geographic entree every bit good. Presently there are over 90 states with some entree to the Internet and over 25 % of these states have gained entree in the last two old ages ( NSF, 1995 ) . New states which merely emerged include Algeria, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, China, Columbia, Dominican Republic, Gallic Polynesia, Jamaica, Lebanon, Lithuania, Macau, Morocco, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Nicaragua, Niger, Panama, Philippines, Senegal, Swaziland, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. As celebrated earlier, the EJS is presently viewed by faculty members in 39 of these states. However we should be cautious in construing these assorted statistics. It remains an empirical inquiry whether or non internet entree is taking to expanded academic entree in these states. Still, the fact that any establishment with an internet connexion can hold entree to the EJS without cost bodes good for the enlargement of entree to academic stuff. Obstacles Two old ages ago, likely one of the biggest troubles associated with publication in electronic format was the ASCII # 8220 ; barrier. # 8221 ; Possibly barrier is to strong a word. But anyone who has had to fight through a papers without the benefit of relative fount, enlarged and embolded headers, variable kerning and line spacing, and neatly justified borders knows what a difference even minimum control over data format can do to the readability of a papers. While it is non impossible, it is really hard to do field text in a field monospace font expression attractive. [ 13 ] Indeed, the usual consequence of ASCII publication attempts is a littered, unsympathetic, hardly legible and frequently merely kick soiled piece of work. Equally silly as it might sound, converting person of the reputability of a publication is hard when the merely illustration you have is an ASCII papers. As Okerson ( 1994: 11 ) notes: Apparently, there are faculty members, and reputable 1s at that, for whom the cost/benefit of the Mercedes Benz # 8212 ; the smart screen, esteemed logo, beautiful paper, and added-value galore # 8212 ; is less of import than the agencies of speedy and effectual conveyance, even if it be simply a rusty old pile that runs. Now of class we have the World Wide Web and the associated Hypertext Markup Language ( HTML ) . With its outgrowth and gradual development, the aesthetic entreaty of electronic paperss has improved a hundredfold. We now have all of the aesthetic benefits of the traditional paper based publication noted above and in add-on we are able to integrate in writing images, sound, and # 8220 ; live # 8221 ; links to cited paperss. As celebrated earlier, some have started to experiment with the potencies of this new media and the consequences are promoting ( Cuneo, 1995 ) . Permanence Despite these welcome progresss, there are still a figure of jobs associated with academic publication on the Internet. These include the permanency, handiness and credibleness ( Harrison et. Al, 1991 ) of the publication. In footings of permanency, it is critical that both subscribers and readers of electronic publications have the confidence of long term, uninterrupted entree. In the yesteryear this confidence has been debatable for a figure of grounds. In the first topographic point, electronic publication is new and, particularly two or more old ages ago, there was merely no confidence that a new publication would last really long. In the 2nd topographic point, alterations in hardware or waiter constellation, or institutional moves can alter the electronic reference of the publication. We at the EJS have experienced this latter trouble as our calculating services section struggles to maintain up with an explosive growing in the demand for internet services. This increased demand has necessitated alterations in computing machine runing systems ( asking alterations in the package used to function HTML paperss ) and alterations in waiter references ( as new waiters are added to the local country web ) . The consequence is impermanent downtime and/or reader defeat as at that place old reference no longer maps. As electronic publication matures, and as specific diaries demonstrate their staying power, permanency becomes less of an issue. Even institutional alterations are no longer important obstructions to the sensed permanency of the diary. It is now a simple affair to turn up publications by pulling on any one of a figure of sophisticated planetary hunt engines. [ 14 ] In add-on, libraries [ 15 ] may take to get complete archives of the HTML files and function them up on their ain hardware ( Amiran and Unsworth, 1994 ) . This of class requires hardware and computing machine expertness. But once more, as the Internet matures, these trade goods are more and more going platitude. An alternate solution to the job of permanency, and one that the EJS is prosecuting because of certain accessory benefits, [ 16 ] is to procure # 8220 ; mirror # 8221 ; sites were complete transcripts of the diaries are kept and updated automatically on a every night footing. In this manner, the EJS is non depend ent on one establishment and endorsers and subscribers can be assured that even if the University of Alberta could no longer supply infinite for the diary, other sites would still be. Canada # 8217 ; s McMaster university is one of the first establishments to offer infinite for such a mirror citation. At this point we are interested in mirror citations in other states. Handiness ( 35 ) Earlier we cited handiness as one of the cardinal benefits of online publication. However there are still unresolved jobs # 8211 ; though like permanency, handiness was more of a job two old ages ago than it is today. At the clip the EJS was founded, the WWW was new and unseasoned and few faculty members even knew that it existed. In add-on, and partially because the academic content of the WWW was minimum, establishments were slow to supply the needful package to entree the WWW and, even when entree was available, few took the clip to develop the needed accomplishments. However with the detonation of academic publications on the cyberspace and the turning acknowledgment of the benefits of electronic publication, more and more establishments are supplying full cyberspace entree for the pupil and academic populations and faculty members are now more motivated to developed the accomplishments needed to surf the web. In add-on, engineering continues to maturate quickly and more user friendly, aesthetically delighting, and sophisticated interfaces are invariably being developed ( or bing 1s enhanced ) . As a consequence of this continued development, there is no ground to believe that all faculty members and pupils will non finally larn to utilize the cyberspace entree tools. Still non everyone has jumped on the WWW bandwagon. For assorted grounds, some proficient, some political, some economic, and some motivational, many still merely hold entree to e-mail. This restricted interface to the cyberspace was the ground that we originally decided to offer the EJS in a WWW version, a Microsoft Word 6.0 RTF [ 17 ] file, a Windowss help register version, and an ASCII version available by Listserv. However a figure of design and logistical jobs forced us to curtail the figure of formats to two. In peculiar we were concerned about the trouble of mapping a standard merchandise to excessively many different formats. Most of this concern arose out of the demand to supply a standard mention between versions so that a mention like ( Fox, 1995: 7 ) would direct the reader to the same transition in each version. Unfortunately, we were unable to bring out an easy and systematic process to supply this perfectly necessary service for the assorted formats we experimented wit h. Credibility If permanency and handiness are mostly going NOTES in the history of electronic publication, the credibleness and acceptableness of electronic publication is non. In portion this is due to the legion cyberspace doomsayers who invariably jabber about the # 8220 ; dangers # 8221 ; of the lawless cyberspace. Crawford, for e.g. , seems worried about the really existent possibility that some fraud will print an updated and improved periodic tabular array of the elements on the cyberspace and that this updated tabular array will someway be accepted by the universe at big as the new lingua franca of chemical science. Crawford ( 1994: 29 ) besides seems concerned about the possible usage of the cyberspace for propaganda. A neo-Marxist grouch could make an impressive intelligence agency and be taken rather every bit earnestly as a major intelligence bureau, even if that grouch made up the supposed intelligence flashes and wildly misinterpreted events. The solution to these menaces harmonizing to Crawford ( 1994: 29 ) is to # 8220 ; inculcate cautiousness and healthy incredulity among users of the Internet and other immediate resources: to do them understand that being online and seemingly up-to day of the month confers no authorization or even chance of rightness on the information they see. # 8221 ; Ya whatever. Crawford # 8217 ; s remarks should strike you as unusually uninformed and paternal. Of class, the type of # 8220 ; grouch coverage # 8221 ; that he is mentioning to goes on all the clip in the existent universe of web news media non to advert the yellow journalism newspapers and intelligence plans that now inundate the airwaves. And propaganda? His concerns about neo-marxist grouchs seem instead misplaced coming from person who lives in a state where life is saturated with commercial and political propaganda designed to pin down and anaesthetize the unwary consumer ( Pratkanis and Aronson, 1992 ) . And merely how stupid and unreflective does he believe people are that they would accept an updated periodical tabular array merely because it appears on the Internet? ( 40 ) Others ( Harnad, 1995 ) have written more specifically about the quality of academic treatments and publication on the cyberspace. He himself nevertheless is non concerned about the possible quality of treatments. Indeed, he seems to pass much of his clip seeking to convert fellow faculty members that high quality scholarly publication is possible in the context of an lawless cyberspace if we merely transport the traditional mechanisms of quality control, i.e. , peer reappraisal, into the electronic kingdom. As he notes, the jobs of credibleness and quality frequently have less to make with the existent quality of the electronic diary, since the column and peer reappraisal maps of paper based diaries can be duplicated more expeditiously electronically, and more to make with the cautious run of most faculty members, the restrictions of computing machine interfaces, the limited rational degree of treatment in some parts of the cyberspace, frights about plagiarism, right of first publication issues, concerns about due recognition, and the reluctance of the disposal in universities to acknowledge electronic publication when doing term of office and promotion determinations ( Harnad, 1990 ) . None of these obstructions cited by Harnad are unsurmountable. Most of them merely necessitate clip for academia to set to the new procedures. However there is one country were intercession will likely be required, at that is acquiring scholarly publication on the cyberspace recognized as a existent publication attempt for term of office and promotion determinations. [ 18 ] Until this is accomplished, it is merely sensible to anticipate that in the extremely competitory universe of academia, writers will go on to get off difficult transcript bill of exchanges of their work to paper based diaries. From the position of the EJS, this is unfortunate since it places bounds on the rate of entries to the diary and hamstrings the growing of sociology on the cyberspace. It is a job noted by others ( Hugo and Newell, 1994 ) and has become peculiarly outstanding for the EJS since we have started to garner regular statistics [ 19 ] on the figure of # 8216 ; hits # 8217 ; to the diary. It is now clear that while many read the diary, few contribute. Of class we can # 8217 ; t fault our readers. Promotion is a serious concern. Still, we are confident that like permanency and handiness, it is merely a affair of clip before this to go a historical footer in the development of electronic publication. There is no uncertainty that electronic diaries are here to remain and that they will replace or renovate many of today # 8217 ; s paper diaries. The Grand Information Future None of the benefits ( reduced cost, velocity of publication, entree, increased functionality through public note togss ) so far outlined are needfully extremist or radical transmutations. Harmonizing to Bill Readings ( 1994 ) , they account for nil more than # 8220 ; prosthetic # 8221 ; extensions to bing signifiers of academic publication. Yet quantitative alteration can sometimes take to qualitative alteration. This realisation, coupled with the rapid rate of alteration and invention on the Internet, has prompted some observers to reason we are witnessing radical alterations in the signifier and content of scholarly communicating. Others sound the decease knell for traditional publication attempts ( Ginsparg, 1994 ; Odlyzko, 1994 ) and some even predict and proselytize for the outgrowth of a new, qualitatively different signifier of scholarly communicating ( Harnad, 1991 ) . ( 45 ) It is hard for me to read these observers without a certain disbelief. Have non we heard this all before in the Hagiographas of Evans ( 1979 ) Toffler ( 1980 ; 1990 ) , Levy ( 1980 ) or Naisbitt ( 1982 ) . Is at that place some ground why we choose to uncritically accept the myth of the information society and the dream of illimitable wealth and easiness proposed by Bell # 8217 ; s ( 1973 ) authoritative analysis of the displacement from goods to a information bring forthing service economic system. Well if the truth be told, sociologists and some others by and large don # 8217 ; t accept these myths ( Noble, 1979 ; Menzies, 1981: 1882 ; Siegal and Markoff, 1985 ; Traber, 1986 ; Cockburn, 1988 ; Lyon, 1988 ; Mosco, 1989 ; Schumacker, 1973 ; Hayes, 1990 ; Schenk and Anderson, 1995 ) . Alternatively, our penchant has been to mount critical assaults on the millenial type anticipations usually associated with discourse on information engineering. We are non, in the words of Roth schild ( 1993 ) advocaters of the # 8220 ; tech-fix. # 8221 ; There is surely a possible ugliness about information engineering that isn # 8217 ; t being considered in the extant literature on electronic publication. We don # 8217 ; Ts have to travel far abroad to happen it. Boyett and Conn ( 1990 ) , for illustration, describe in loving footings the tilt, average aggressive and panoptic workplace made possible by the new information engineerings. They paint a image of an environment # 8220 ; revolutionized # 8221 ; by information engineering beyond acknowledgment. Their workplace 2000 has fewer chances for promotion, reduced occupation security, decreased wage ( a rap on the dorsum and a word of congratulations # 8211 ; bequests of decennaries of research into support techniques in psychological science # 8211 ; suffice ) , wage bundles tied to productiveness and public presentation, inducement and piecework strategies, increased force per unit area to execute for those still with occupations, harder and longer hours, and an about Orwell ian accent on organizing one # 8217 ; s mind to the organisational head set and being portion of the squad. In this new workplace 2000, in-between direction is gone because the engineering performs the maps they used to ( roll uping, collating and synthesising information for upper direction ) . Karake ( 1992 ) cites a long list of organisations ( including Hewlett Packard # 8211 ; celebrated for its progressive labour policies ) utilizing IT to recentralize control. This is specifically pronounced in the widespread usage by direction forces of personal computing machines that can tap into big centralized information bases and that are linked together as portion of a larger computing machine web. The consequence is a wider span of control, fewer degrees in the hierarchy, and lower complexness. Information engineering may besides take to less formalisation in organisations. The ground is that direction information systems can replace computing machine regulations and determination discretion. Since computing machine engineering can quickly warn top direction of the effects of any determination, nevertheless, it enables them to take disciplinary action if the determination is non to their liking. From the foregoing, we can reason that even through information engineering helps in the decentalisation of the decision-making procedure, it does so with no commensurate loss of control by top direction. This is sometimes referred to in the literature as the centralized-decentralized construction ( Karake, 1992: 18 ) . At this point you might be inquiring yourself why any of this is relevant. Its merely to demo the dark side of information engineering and to show the demand to look behind the myths about electronic publication being presently propagated on the cyberspace in order to cast some visible radiation on those corners of the universe consistently ignored by advocates of engineering and electronic communicating. And there is surely a demand to turn the visible radiations on. After all, when you think about it, anybody composing about electronic publication is likely to come from the upper echelons of the academic and direction universe. As a consequence, they are likely to convey with them certain values and attitudes that do non needfully predispose them towards a critical scrutiny of the undertakings they endorse. In following two subdivisions we # 8217 ; ll take a critical expression at some of the issues and anticipations of those who support the sweeping transmutation of the scholarly endeavor. We # 8217 ; ll get down with a expression at the hereafter of traditional publishing houses and terminal with an scrutiny of Harnad # 8217 ; s anticipations for the transmutation of the scholarly endeavor and the bookman # 8217 ; s mentality. These following two subdivisions amount to nil more than an effort to place the sociological issues and point to inquiries that need empirical attending. In this procedure there will be much that I will lose and that others will necessitate to make full in. The Demise of Traditional Diaries One qualitative alteration that some are trusting for is a displacement in the venue of the publication attempt. As Ginsparg ( 1994 ) notes, the whole intent of a diary is to a ) communicate research info, and B ) to formalize this information for the intent of occupation and grant allotment. In the kingdom of paper, carry throughing the twin intent of publication has been best carried out by the intermediate publication industry which has performed the indispensable maps of roll uping and administering stuff ( traditional publishing houses of class have ever relied on bookmans for equal reappraisal and quality control ) . However, with the coming of electronic publication, there is less of a demand for an intermediary publishing house. This, and the decrease in the cost of printing stuff, makes free scholarly communicating and publication for highly little and specialised audiences a distinguishable possibility. ( 50 ) As we noted earlier, most ( if non all ) of the value added work provided to diaries is performed by the editor, board, and equal referees. Because these maps are traditionally provided free of charge to diaries it is sensible to anticipate that diaries besides be provided free of charge. Ginsparg ( 1994 ) provides us with the strongest statement. So the indispensable point is now axiomatic: if we the research workers are non composing with the outlook of doing money straight from our attempts, so there is no earthly ground why anyone else should do money in the procedure ( except for a just return on any non-trivial # 8220 ; value-added # 8221 ; they may supply ; or except if, as was once the instance in the paper-only epoch, the true costs of doing our paperss publically available are sufficiently high to necessitate that they be sold for a fee ) . Up until rather late the lone pioneers have been private bookmans carry oning personal experiments into the potency of electronic publication. However as should be now evident, there is a definite menace here to the hegemonic control exerted by traditional paper publishing houses over scholarly communicating. And it has some of them worried. R.A. Shoaf, President of the Council of Elders of Learned Journals ( CELJ ) made the undermentioned remarks at the CEJL panel at the MLA in Toronto in 1993. ( Shoaf, 1994 ) . If we consider the instead singular fact that the epoch of the Personal computer ( the personal computing machine ) is hardly 15 old ages old today and expression, in that visible radiation, at the revolution it has effected, so I think it is easy for us to foretell that withi n the first few decennaries of the twenty-first century, even more radical alterations will happen at every degree of our profession. There is, so, a sense in which all of us are already really far behind. And although we possibly do non desire to encompass the ethos of the current gag in the market place, all of us in academic publication demand to wake up to he [ sic ] world of these dramatic alterations, or we might so go â€Å"roadkill on the information superhighway.† Both inside and outside of the kingdom of erudite diaries, traditional publishing houses have late responded to this menace by taking stairss to work the potency of the cyberspace. Okerson ( 1995 ) has noted that so far their attempts suffer from a figure of drawbacks. The downside of the publishing houses # 8217 ; experimentation continues to be that the experiments are limited in critical ways. The biggest drawback is that print publishing houses are seeking ways to continue the paper image electronically, offering non text but images of text in bit-mapped images, frequently through the rapidly-obsolescing CD-ROM bringing vehicle. Such attempts fail to take advantage of the best features of networked communications: velocity of distribution and entree facilitated in several ways. Thus, many of the current experiments, while offering some value, do non progress the involvements of the user every bit to the full as possible via electronic networked bringing ( Okerson, 1995 ) . The feeling that Okerson and others leave us is an us ( not-for-profit publishing houses ) against them ( big-bad-publishing-companies ) feeling that leaves # 8220 ; us # 8221 ; in a privileged place vis a vis our usage of information engineering. Yet as we known the position quo does non function over easy and there is no ground to believe that traditional publishing houses will non happen a manner to work cyberspace engineerings to their fullest extent while still retaining their privileged and dearly-won places at the Centre of the scholarly communicating existence. Our concern as sociologists should be with the manner the publication companies choose to react. We need to inquire what # 8217 ; s go oning inside the traditional publication companies as they scramble to accommodate to the new publication environment. How will they react to publications like the EJS which can be offered for free and can turn around entries in less than two months? I suspect that if we look, we wil l happen merely another illustration of flexible production and the # 8220 ; thin and average # 8221 ; ethos of competitory capitalist economy. Indeed, with diaries like the EJS puting the illustration, we could merely happen a set of responses well more ugly than we might ab initio anticipate. There are other issues we need to analyze every bit good. One peculiarly interesting one is the manner traditional publishing houses are traveling to accommodate their fiscal operations to the new media. If as Ginsparg suggests, the new unit of publication should be the paper and non the diary, might non journals choose to offer their entries on a pay-per-view footing? And might non this lead bookmans and bibliothecs to the slaughter? As noted earlier, some have argued that we no longer need the traditional publishing houses to roll up and administer stuff. However the same statement could easy be made about libraries. With the super-search tools now available, and the low cost of storage, might non a publishing houses merely archive all the diaries and all the volumes they have of all time published on a aggregation of 20 G discs and offer them for sale straight to interested parties at say, 20 dollars a dad? Scholars would lose since universities would hold a sound justification fo r cut downing their budgets for diaries ( would tenured professors get a wage rise to counterbalance # 8211 ; non likely ) and libraries and bibliothecs would lose for grounds that do non necessitate to be enumerated. ( 55 ) As we begin to carry on research on the publication industry, we # 8217 ; ll need to maintain a twosome of things in head. In the first topographic point, the existent result of the conflicts that lie in front will probably be sensitive to the peculiar subject in which the lines are drawn. In high-energy natural philosophies for illustration, the hereafter of traditional publishing houses looks pretty inexorable. Paul Ginsparg # 8217 ; s database and preprint waiter has all but obsolesced traditional diaries in the country ( Ginsparg, 1994 ) . The existent end-users of the database prefer the high velocity and unfastened commentary possible with this theoretical account. However in other, more conservative and less technologically cognizant countries, traditional publishing houses may happen a manner to discredit full electronic publication attempts. This may stop up go forthing free diaries like the EJS nil more than a # 8220 ; sink for stuff of lesser quality # 8221 ; ( Naylor and Harnad, 1994 ) . In the 2nd topographic point we # 8217 ; ll be necessitating to continually measure our place. This issue is much closer to place than our traditional countries of enquiry. Indeed, it strikes to the bosom of our scholarly endeavor and their may be a inclination to overlook some cardinal inquiries. For illustration, we may be caught starry eyed at the huge power of information engineering and our ability to seek the universe from our place computing machine for research stuff. But we will necessitate to cognize how the increased efficiency of research attempts consequence publication criterions used for advancement determinations one time the disposal gimmicks on. I # 8217 ; ll have more to state about this in the following subdivision. Scholarly Skywriting and the Legacy of Marshall McLuhan Electronic diaries should non and will non be mere ringers of paper diaries, shades in another medium. What we need, and what Psycoloquy will endeavour to assist supply, are some eye-popping presentations of the alone power of scholarly skywriting. I am convinced that one time bookmans have experienced it, they will go addicted for life, as I did. And one time word gets out that there are some singular things go oning in this medium, things that can non be duplicated by any other agencies, these conditions will stand for to the scholarly community and # 8220 ; offer they can non refuse. # 8221 ; We are so poised for a lightning-fast stage passage, once more a alone characteristic of the graduated table and range of this medium, one that will forever go forth the land-based engineering far behind, as scholarship is launched at last into the post-Gutenberg galaxy ( Harnad, 1991 ) . Any of you familiar with the ulterior Hagiographas of Marshal McLuhan ( 1965 ; 1969 ; 1989 ) should acknowledge the beginnings of the above citation. Though less aureate than some of McLuhan # 8217 ; s prose, the transition however remains true to the type of deterministic, frequently absurd ( Finkelstein, 1968 ) bombast that has made Mcluhan a favorite among pseudo-intellectuals heirs of his mastermind ( for illustration de Kerckhove, 1995 ) , popular gurus and media initiates likewise. [ 20 ] Like McLuhan, Harnad is proposing, and so neer tyres of promoting, a # 8220 ; fourth-revolution # 8221 ; in the # 8220 ; agencies of production # 8221 ; of cognition and a 4th revolution in the manner worlds think. Harnad, like McLuhan before him, argues in generalizations about the transmutations wrought by the debut of new media types. He figures that there have been three old revolutions wrought on human consciousness: these are the historic displacements from preliterate to unwritten signifiers of communicating, from unwritten to written communicating, from written to printed, and eventually from printed to electronic based ( or skywritten ) communicating. He suggests that the passage from unwritten to written civilization slowed down communicating doing composing # 8220 ; somewhat out of synch with thought. # 8221 ; Because we could merely read one book at a clip instead than listening to tribal narrative Teller, composing made # 8220 ; communicating more brooding and lone than direct speech. # 8221 ; We became # 8220 ; less self-generated # 8230 ; more calculated # 8230 ; more systematic. # 8221 ; All this changed with the debut of print which # 8220 ; restored an synergistic com ponent, at least among bookmans, # 8221 ; and transformed scholarship doing it a more # 8220 ; corporate, cumulative, and synergistic endeavor [ like ] it had ever been destined to be. # 8221 ; Harnad suggests that despite these transmutation, all of these anterior manners of communicating placed restrictions on human idea procedures. The restrictions emerged because there is a natural velocity at which we communicate. Harmonizing to Harnad, this natural velocity is set by the gait of verbal discourse. All this is traveling to alter, harmonizing to Harnad, as the bookmans begin working the potency of electronic communicating for lightning velocity electronic discourse and synergistic scholarly enterprise. When this happens, the restrictions on human thought will be eventually shattered and scholarship will take to the skies. ( 60 ) Harnad justifies his historical templet on the undermentioned evidences. The ground I individual out as radical merely address, authorship, and print in this view of media transmutations that shaped how we communicate is that I think merely those three had a qualitative consequence on how we think. In a nutshell, address made it possible to do propositions, hand-writing made it possible to continue them speaker-independently, and print made it possible to continue them hand-writer-independently. All three had a dramatic consequence on how we thought every bit good as on how we expressed our ideas, so arguably they had an every bit dramatic consequence on what we thought ( Harnad, 1991: 41 ) . There are legion jobs with Harnad # 8217 ; s analysis non the least of which is his ascription of a # 8220 ; natural # 8221 ; velocity for human discourse. This slaps of essentialist statements about human nature that need to be earnestly addressed and non merely glossed over and ignored. There is besides a job with the impression that a human verbal conversation should be the benchmark against which we gauge other manners of communicating. There is merely no justification for believing that verbal communicating is any more natural than composing or printing. This is like proposing, after McLuhan, that since the outgrowth of composing in Mesopotamia, worlds have lived in a diachronic-alphabetic straitjacket. This is, of class, technological determinism at its finest. Isn # 8217 ; t it more sensible to see composing and address as two different sides of a same coin # 8211 ; each with their ain intent and natural beat? Address might be more appropriate in insouciant scenes, for il lustration. Writing, on the other manus, with its backbreaking and thoughtful building of sentences over months and even old ages, is possibly better suited to state of affairss where the author needs to gait herself and see carefully the logical flow and content of the work. Considered in this light, we could conceivably reason that the acceleration of academic discourse will hold a negative impact on the quality of our rational work. There are other jobs as good. Possibly, as Harnad suggests above, the effects of media on human consciousness are arguable. But these effects have non been satisfactorily demonstrated. At one point he makes some obscure mention to the historical work turn outing the transformative potency of media. But this record, every bit little as it is, has been challenged. Some have argued successfully that media transmutation and any # 8220 ; radical # 8221 ; possible the engineerings might claim hold been successfully incorporated into bing socio-political formation ( Mosco, 1989 ) . Others, like Winston ( 1986 ) , are more explicitly reprobating about the usage of anecdotal grounds and the deficiency of historical edification in statements about the # 8220 ; radical # 8221 ; impact of information engineering. Describing his ain grounds for set abouting a undertaking of historical alteration and technological omen, Winston makes the undermentioned remarks. The present text [ is ] mostly in response to a dominant inclination in the literature on electronic communicating devices, both popular and scholarly, which uses an erroneous history, both implicitly and explicitly, as a prognostic tool. Unfettered by much apprehension of the past beyond the anecdotal, many presently propound penetrations into our hereafter in the signifier of flights from our yesteryear ( Winston, 1986: 27 ) . Indeed, historiographers began to see centuries of continuity alternatively of technological water partings about two decennaries ago. Gimpel ( 1977 ) for illustration, screens in item the early and in-between medieval periods ( circa 1000 to 1300 ) . His overview of the period is intriguing and lighting ( Gimpel, 1977: eight ) . There was a great addition in population, which led to monolithic motions of people. They emigrated ; they opened up and colonised new lands ; they founded and built new towns. Conditionss favored free endeavor, and this led to the rise of self-made work forces. Capitalist companies were formed and their portions were bought and sold. Entrepreneurs were to the full prepared to utilize ruthless concern methods to smother competition. They introduced extended division of labour to increase efficiency, and their endeavors called into being a labor whom they could work. The workers retaliated with pay claims, absenteeism, and work stoppages. Harmonizing to Gimpel, the Medieval era was an age of invention and machinery. Technology was introduced on an unprecedented graduated table. New beginnings of power were developed and old beginnings were refined and enhanced. Progresss were made in agribusiness, fabrics and excavation. This led to increased productiveness, a healthier diet and a lifting criterion of life. Possibly non surprisingly, there were a figure of environmental number ones. Huge piece of lands of land were deforested to construct Millss, houses, Bridgess, palaces, casks for vinos, ships, looms, etc. Bark was used to do ropes and trees and burned for fuel in 1000s of glass and Fe mills. As a consequence, trees became scarce so coal excavation was introduced in the thirteenth century. Shortly after that, pollution of assorted signifiers became so much of a job that in 1338, the first countrywide antipollution acted was passed by parliament. We besides now know that the Medieval ( or pre-print ) epoch was one of considerable rational activity that was immediate with Greek, Roman and Byzantine scholarly attempts ( Lindberg, 1992 ) . And all this before the innovation of the printing imperativeness c1450 by Johan Gutenburg! ( 65 ) True Harnad focuses for the most portion on transmutations to scholarly communicating so possibly we need to contract our focal point. But even here the impression that the velocity up of scholarly discourse through scholarly skywriting will hold some kind of positive transformative consequence on the scholarly procedure or our thought is a small difficult to get down. In the first topographic point, the claims are likely overstated. We can acquire a clearer image of this when we consider the possibility that the greatest rational and cognitive transmutation than any academic undergoes is the Ph.D. procedure which requires the pupil to read 100s of frequently deadening, paper edge books and diary articles. Scholarly skywriting merely has nil on the growing in rational adulthood, the alterations in thought, and possibly the ossification of believing wonts, that alumnus plans have managed now for centuries as a everyday portion of the doctorial course of study. It would take a g ood trade of empirical grounds to convert me that the new information engineerings will hold an equal or greater impact than this age old rational procedure. In the 2nd topographic point, there are more powerful structural factors act uponing the utilizations to which IT is being put. For illustration, IT is improbable to even touch the basic constructions of the scholarly endeavor like the # 8220 ; publish or perish # 8220 ; syndrome that makes # 8220 ; pass oning # 8221 ; to pupils or the general populace a secondary concern # 8211 ; possibly even a positive irritation # 8211 ; to many faculty members. In this context, the potency of IT is likely to ensue in more force per unit area to stay current and more incentive to pass long darks in forepart of the CRT. Nor are these alterations probably to loosen that other great structural jussive mood, the fiscal crises, that most establishments face. Equally sad as it is, we will probably non see a relaxation of the administrative push to work more, learn greater Numberss, sleep less, and cut cut cut. In fact, if we were misanthropic, we might even reason that Harnad and others like him are presenting us into the custodies of those who would destruct us by promoting the development of a engineering that meshes oh so absolutely with the planetary conservative docket to downsize and acquire thin, average and efficient. It would be our worst incubus if we swallowed the whole IT package merely to recognize latter that shortages and downsizing were ruddy herrings designed by right flying think armored combat vehicles to cull us into accepting some concealed docket ( McQuaig, 1995 ) . If this turned out to be the instance, no sum of # 8220 ; transformative # 8221 ; cutting border engineering will be able to squelch the drive thirst to cut down authorities outgo in order to let go of certain sectors of society from the revenue enhancement load. # 8220 ; No terminal in sight # 8221 ; might so go the clarion call of the technological advocators. Clearly, Harnad # 8217 ; s account for the transformative impact of information engineering is unequal and evidently we have our work cut out for us if we want to develop a satisfactory analysis of any alterations that may be happening. Some possible waies associating to the diaries themselves were noted in the old subdivision. Here, I would wish to propose a more elaborate scrutiny of scholarly composing undertakings. In peculiar, it would be utile to discourse the different experiences that writers have had with traditional and electronic publication and to analyze whether or non the experience of e-publication has changed rational wonts. At this point in clip, this kind of survey would be possible in most other subjects. However because of sociologies slow consumption of information engineerings ( clairvoyance. in North America ) , we # 8217 ; vitamin Ds have to wait for a sufficient figure of bookmans to see the new publication methods. A more hard undertaking, but one that is necessary however, is to follow the administrative response to the outgrowth of electronic publication. This might affect foremost

Place free essay sample

When we visited them, we ate in their simple kitchen built with bamboo floors. They came wearing traditional Filipino dresses. They looked so beautiful for me (in their old age and single blessedness), and the kitchen smelled like fresh flowers. The other kitchen I can remember is the kitchen of my grandmother in a far remote place, along the Pacific Ocean. My grandmothers kitchen is a big kitchen built of wood. Imagine how old houses looked. There was firewood, big cooking utensils, as if theyre always serving 100 people everyday. There were sacks of rice piled on top of the other. Chickens were roaming in the backyard, down the back kitchen door. I dont know why I can always remember kitchens, even when I go to other homes, in different places. I love that kitchen part of the house. Many people say The kitchen and the toilet are very important rooms in the house. We will write a custom essay sample on Place or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They must be kept clean and orderly at all times. Now, I have my own kitchen where I raised my kids. And as theyre grown ups, I like to work and write here. When I read Afred Kazins The Kitchen, it delighted me by what Kazin saw in the life of her mother. He focused on the kitchen room as the largest room and the center of the house. It was in the kitchen where his mother worked all day long as home dressmaker and where they ate all meals. He writes: The kitchen gave a special character to our lives; my mothers character. All the memories of that kitchen were the memories of my mother. In his essay, Alfred Kazin remembers how her mother said, How sad it is! It grips me! though after a while, her mother has drawn him one single line of sentence, Alfred, see how beautiful! Article Source: http://EzineArticles. om/4722428 This sentence-combining exercise has been adapted from The Kitchen, an excerpt from Alfred Kazins memoir A Walker in the City (published in 1951 and reprinted by Harvest Books in 1969). In The Kitchen, Kazin recalls his childhood in Brownsville, a Brooklyn neighborhood which in the 1920s had a largely Jewish population. His focus is on the room in which his mother spent much of her time working on the sewing she took in to make extra money. To get a feel for Kazins descriptive style, begin by reading the opening paragraph of the selection, reprinted below. Next, reconstruct paragraph two by combining the sentences in each of the 13 sets that follow. Several of the setsthough not allrequire coordination of words, phrases, and clauses. If you run into any problems, you may find it helpful to review our Introduction to Sentence Combining. As with any sentence-combining exercise, feel free to combine sets (to create a longer sentence) or to make two or more sentences out of one set (to create shorter sentences). You may rearrange the sentences in any fashion that strikes you as appropriate and effective. Note that there are two unusually long sets in this exercise, #8 and #10. In the original paragraph, both sentences are structured as lists. If you favor shorter sentences, you may choose to separate the items in either (or both) of these lists. After completing the exercise, compare your paragraph with Kazins original on page two. But keep in mind that many combinations are possible. The Kitchen* In Brownsville tenements the kitchen is always the largest room and the center of the household. As a child I felt that we lived in a kitchen to which four other rooms were annexed. My mother, a home dressmaker, had her workshop in the kitchen. She told me once that she had begun dressmaking in Poland at thirteen; as far back as I can remember, she was always making dresses for the local women. She had an innate sense of design, a quick eye for all the subtleties in the latest fashions, even when she despised them, and great boldness. For three or four dollars she would study the fashion magazines with a customer, go with the customer to the remnants store on Belmont Avenue to pick out the material, argue the owner downall remnants stores, for some reason, were supposed to be shady, as if the owners dealt in stolen goodsand then for days would patiently fit and aste and sew and fit again. Our apartment was always full of women in their housedresses sitting around the kitchen table waiting for a fitting. My little bedroom next to the kitchen was the fitting room. The sewing machine, an old nut-brown Singer with golden scrolls painted along the black arm and engraved along the two tiers of little drawers massed with needles a nd thread on each side of the treadle, stood next to the window and the great coal-black stove which up to my last year in college was our main source of heat. By December the two outer bed-rooms were closed off, and used to chill bottles of milk and cream, cold borscht, and jellied calves feet. Paragraph Two: 1. The kitchen held our lives together. 2. My mother worked in it. She worked all day long. We ate almost all meals in it. We did not have the Passover seder in there. I did my homework at the kitchen table. I did my first writing there. I often had a bed made up for me in winter. The bed was on three kitchen chairs. The chairs were near the stove. 3. A mirror hung on the wall. The mirror hung just over the table. The mirror was long. The mirror was horizontal. The mirror sloped to a ships prow at each end. The mirror was lined in cherry wood. 4. It took the whole wall. It drew every object in the kitchen to itself. 5. The walls were a whitewash. The whitewash was fiercely stippled. My father often rewhitened it. He did this in slack seasons. He did this so often that the paint looked as if it had been squeezed and cracked into the walls. 6. There was an electric bulb. It was large. It hung down at the end of a chain. The chain had been hooked into the ceiling. The old gas ring and key still jutted out of the wall like antlers. 7. The sink was in the corner. The sink was next to the toilet. We washed at the sink. The tub was also in the corner. My mother did our clothes in the tub. 8. There were many things above the tub. These things were tacked to a shelf. Sugar and spice jars were ranged on the shelf. The jars were white. The jars were square. The jars had blue borders. The jars were ranged pleasantly. Calendars hung there. They were from the Public National Bank on Pitkin Avenue. They were from the Minsker Branch of the Workmans Circle. Receipts were there. The receipts were for the payment of insurance premiums. Household bills were there. The bills were on a spindle. Two little boxes were there. The boxes were engraved with Hebrew letters. 9. One of the boxes was for the poor. The other was to buy back the Land of Israel. 10. A little man would appear. The man had a beard. He appeared every spring. He appeared in our kitchen. He would salute with a Hebrew blessing. The blessing was hurried. He would empty the boxes. Sometimes he would do this with a sideways look of disdain. He would do this if the boxes were not full. He would bless us again hurriedly. He would bless us for remembering our Jewish brothers and sisters. Our brothers and sisters were less fortunate. He would take his departure until the next spring. He would try to persuade my mother to take still another box. He tried in vain. 11. We dropped coins in the boxes. Occasionally we remembered to do this. Usually we did this on the morning of mid-terms and final examinations. My mother thought it would bring me luck. 12. She was extremely superstitious. She was embarrassed about it. She counseled me to leave the house on my right foot. She did this on the morning of an examination. She always laughed at herself whenever she did this. 13. I know its silly, but what harm can it do? It may calm God down. Her smile seemed to say this. v John d. hazlett Repossessing the Past: Discontinuity and History In Alfred Kazins A Walker in the City Critics of Alfred Kazins A Walker in the City (1951)1 have almost always abstracted from it the story of a young man who feels excluded from the world outside his immediate ethnic neighborhood, and who eventually attempts to find, through writing, a means of entry into that world. It would be very easy to imagine from what these critics have said that the book was written in the same form as countless other autobiographies of adolescence and rites-of-passage. One thinks imme- diately, for instance, of a tradition stretching from Edmund Gosses Father and Son to Frank Conroys Stop-Time, as well as fictional auto- biographical works such as James Joyces Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. We are encouraged in this view by the publishers, Har- court, Brace World, who tell us on the cover that A Walker in the City is a book about an American walking into the world, learning on his skin what it is like. The American is Alfred Kazin as a young man. Even the most thorough of Kazins critics, John Paul Eakin, writes of A Walker that the young Kazins outward journey to America is the heart of the book. 2 One of the few reviewers who noticed those elements that distin- guish this memoir from others of its kind was the well known Ameri- can historian, Oscar Handlin. Unfortunately, Mr. Handlin also found the book unintelligible: If some system of inner logic holds these sec- tions together it is clear only to the author. It is not only that chronol- ogy is abandoned so there is never any certainty of the sequence of events; but a pervasive ambiguity of perspective leaves the reader often in doubt as to whether it was the walker who saw then, or the writer who sees now, or the writer recalling what the walker saw then. Epi- 326 biography Vol. 7, No. 4 sodic, without the appearance of form or order, there is a day-dreamy quality to the organization, as if it were a product of casual reminis- cence. 3 Handlins charge that the memoir lacks a system of inner logic is incorrect, but he does identify a number of qualities that dis- tinguish A Walker from other coming-of-age autobiographies. One option that is not apparently available to autobiographers, as it is to novelists, is the removal of the authors presence from the narra- tive. And yet autobiographers do manage to achieve something like this removal by recreating themselves as characters. That is, we can distinguish between the author as author and the author as character (an earlier self). In some autobiographies of childhood, where the nar- ration ends before the character develops into what we might imagine to be the autobiographers present self, the writer may never appear (as writer) in the narrative at all. The earlier selves in such autobio- graphies remain as characters. Where the autobiographer appears as both character and writer, however, the distinction is by no means always clear. If the autobiographer actually follows the progress of his earlier self to the narrative present, then the distinction disappears somewhere en route. One can, in fact, distinguish between types of autobiographies according to the strategies they employ to achieve this obliteration of distance between earlier self (as character) and present self (as writer). Kazin has complicated this aspect of his autobiography by recreat- ing two distinct earlier selves: his child self and an adult self, the titu- lar walker. It is this aspect of his memoir that sets it apart from other coming-of-age autobiographies. In none of the conventional works in this sub-genre is the present narrative I so conspicuous a figure (not only as a voice, but as an active character) as it is in Kazins book, and in none of them is the chronological reconstruction of the past so pur- posefully avoided. His memoir, unlike most autobiographies of adoles- cence, is just as much about the efforts of the adult walker to recapture his past self as it is about his earlier attempts to go beyond that self. By granting his present self equal status with the re-creation of his child- hood, he has produced a hybrid form. The central characteristic of that form is the parallel relationship between the quest of the young Kazin to achieve selfhood by identify- ing himself with an American place and a portion of its history, and the quest of the older Kazin to resolve some present unrest about who he is by recovering his younger self and the locale of his own past. The former quest is that story hich critics say the memoir is about, but the latter is located in the memoir on at least two levels. Like the Hazlett repossessing the past 327 childs quest, it is narrated, in that Kazin actually tells us of his return, as an adult, to Brownsville, but its significance is manifest only on an implicit level; we must infer why the quest was undertaken. 4 Kazin emphasizes the symmetry of these two quests by describing each of them in phrases that echo the other. In the first chapter of the memoir, the adult Kazin, walking through the streets of the Browns- ville neighborhood in which he grew up, describes what it means to him: Brownsville is that road which every other road in my life has had to cross (p. 8). By going back and walking once again those familiarly choked streets at dusk (p. 6), he is reviewing his own his- tory in an attempt to settle some old doubts about the relationship between his past and present selves. In similar language, Kazin describes at the very end of the memoir how the boys search for an American identity finally expressed itself in a fascination with Ameri- can history, and in particular with the dusk at the end of the nine- teenth century which was, he thought, that fork in the road where all American lives cross (p. 171). The parallels that we find in language are repeated in the means by which the young boy finds access to America and the adult finds access to his younger selfA—by walking and by immersing himself in the his- torical ambiance of an earlier period. I could never walk across Roe- blings bridge, he says of himself as a boy, or pass the hotel on Uni- versity Place named Albeit, in Ryders honor, or stop in front of the garbage cans at Fulton and Cranberry Streets in Brooklyn at the place where Whitman had himself printed Leaves of Grass, without thinking that I had at last opened the great trunk of forgotten time in New York in which I, too, I thought, would someday find the source of my unrest (p. 72). The young Kazin initially found his way out of Brownsville and into the America of the nineteenth century by walk- ing into an historical locale. It is again by walking, by going over the whole route (p. 8), that the adult Kazin sets out to rediscover his child self in the streets of Brownsville. One may detect, however, an ironic tension between these two quests. The childs search is the immigrant scions search for an Amer- ican identity. It is, in part, the psychological extension of the parents literal search for America, and, in part, the result of his parents ambivalence about their own place in the New World. The most sig- nificant frustration of the young Kazins life was over the apparently unbridgeable discontinuity between them and us, Gentiles and us, alrightniks and us. . . . The line . . . had been drawn for all time (p. 99). This discontinuity represented to him the impossibility of choos- 328 biography Vol. 7, No. 4 ing a way of being in the world. Eventually, it takes on larger meaning in the childs mind to include the distance between the immigrants past in Russia and the late nineteenth century America of Teddy Roosevelt, between poverty and making out all right, between, finally, a Brownsville identity and an American identity. In the childs quest, these petty distinctions I had so long made in loneliness (p. 173) are overcome through a vision of the Brooklyn Bridge that allowed him to see how he might span the discontinuities that left him outside all that (p. 72); and through the discovery of a model for himself as a solitary singer in the tradition of Blake, my Yeshua, my Beethoven, my Newman and a long line of nineteenth century Americans (p. 172). The final element of his victory over them and us, however, was the substitution of Americas history for his own Brownsville history and his familys vague East-European his- tory. His parents past, he said, bewildered him as a child: it made me long constantly to get at some past nearer my own New York life, my having to live with all those running wounds of a world I had never seen (p. 9). To resolve this longing, he says, I read as if books would fill my every gap, legitimize my strange quest for the American past, remedy my every flaw, let me in at last into the great world that was anything just out of Brownsville (p. 172). The adult walker, on the other hand, is searching for the child he once was and for the world in which he grew up; his intention is to re- create his old awareness of the adolescents gaps so that he might resolve them. By the time Kazin begins his retrogression to childhood, ten years have elapsed since his final departure from Brownsville (p. ) and (assuming that the narrative present is also the writers present) some twenty years have elapsed since the final scene of the book. Dur- ing that period, the writer has undergone a peculiar transformation. The adolescents strange quest for an American identity through the substitutio n of Americas past for his own has culminated outside the frame of A Walker in the writing of On Native Grounds,5 a book that is obsessively and authoritatively alive with American history. The young boy has grown up to become one of Americas established literary spokesmen; he has become one of them. In becoming the man, the child has not, however, closed the gaps; he has simply crossed over them to the other side. As a child, Kazin thought of himself as a solitary, standing outside of America (p. 172); as an adult autobiographer, he stands outside of his own past. The adults attempt to imagine his own history, there- fore, begins with the significant perception of his alienation from his Hazlett repossessing the past 329 wn child self and from the time and place in which that self lived. Brownsville is not a part of his present sense of himself, it must be given back (p. 6) to him; and going back reveals a disturbing dis- continuity. The return to Brownsville fills him with an an instant rage . . . mixed with dread and some unexpected tenderness (p. 5). He senses again, he says, the old foreboding that all of my life would be like this (p. 6) and I feel in Brownsville that I am walking in my sleep. I keep bumping awake at harsh intervals, then fall back into my trance again (p. 7). The extent of his alienation from his former self is attested to in the last of Kazins memoirs, New York Jew, where he writes that A Walker was not begun as an autobiography at all, but simply as an exploration of the city. Dissatisfied with the barren, smart, soulless6 quality of what he was writing, Kazin kept attempting to put more of himself into the book. Finally, he says, I saw that a few pages on The Old Neighborhood in the middle of the book, which I had dreamily tossed off in the midst of my struggles with the city as something alien to me, became the real book on growing up in New York that I had wanted to write without knowing I did. 7 There is, naturally, a good deal of irony in this, as well as some pathos, for although Kazin does not expressly acknowledge the rela- tionship between the two quests, it seems clear that the young boys search for an American identity entailed the denial of his own cultural past. Ultimately, this denial necessitated the writing of the book, for the adults search is for the self he lost in his effort to become an Amer- ican. The adults problem is not resolved within the narrative, how- ever, but by the narrative itself. It is the writer who establishes the con- nection between his earlier, lost self and his adult self. In doing this, he completes the bridge to America. The writer in this sense may be distinguished from the adult walker who is, like the young Kazin, merely a character, a former self, within the memoir. In formal terms, the two quests that comprise the narra- tive material of the memoir make up its fabula; the resolution of both quests is to be found only in the coexistence of these two selves in the narrative as narrative. The resolution, in other words, is accomplished by formal, literary means. It is enacted by the memoirs sujet. Given these two quests as the key to the memoirs form, the general structure of the book may be schematized as follows: Chapter I: The walker returns literally to his childhood neighbor- hood and imaginatively to childhood itself. Chapter II: The walker stops and the autobiographer (distinguished 330 biography Vol. 7, No. 4 here from the walker) contemplates the psychological/symbolic cen- ter of childhood, the kitchen. Chapter III: The walker literally returns to the scenes of his adoles- cence and imaginatively to adolescence. Chapter IV: The walker stops and the autobiographer (again, distin- guished from walker) contemplates the psychological/symbolic cen- ter of adolescence, the rites of passage. The use of this structure naturally gives rise to some difficulties of perspective. Mr. Handlins observation that there are at least three dif- ferent points of view: the walker who saw then, or the writer who sees now, or the writer recalling what the walker saw then was apt, even though he could not see that the complexity of perspectives fol- lowed a fairly careful pattern. An analysis of what those points of view are, and how they work together, must begin with the recognition that all earlier perspectives, both the walkers and the childs, are recreated in the writers voice, which mimics them in a very complex form of lit- erary ventriloquism. Given this, one may recognize that within the narrative the writer, the single informing point-of-view, speaks in three different voices: his own as writer, the voice of the adult walker, and the voice of the child. Each of these voices gives rise to variations in narrative technique. In chapters one and three, the writer uses a fictive device to create the illusion that no recollection of the adult walkers perspective is neces- sary in the act of transferring his walking thoughts to the written word. The voice of the adult walker, an earlier self who made the trip, is identified with that of the writer by the frequent use of the present tense: The smell of damp out of the rotten hallways accompanies me all the way to Blake Avenue (p. 7). In these chapters, the walkers memories of childhood are emphasized as memories because his physi- cal presence and voice call attention to the context and the mechanics of remembering. Thus, from the moment the walker alights from the train at Rockaway Avenue in chapter one, the text is sprinkled with reminders that this is the story of the adult walker pursuing the past through cues from the present: Everything seems so small here now (p. 7), the place as I have it in my mind I never knew then (p. 11), they have built a housing project (p. 12), I miss all these ratty wooden tenements (p. 13). Similarly, in chapter three, after Kazin steps away from the more disembodied memory of his mothers kitchen: the whole block is now thick with second hand furniture stores I have to fight maple love seats bulging out of the doors (p. 78), I see the barbershop through the steam (p. 79). Hazlett repossessing the past 331 In both of these chapters, the writer/walkers imagination seizes upon and transforms the landmarks of an earlier period of his life. The literal journey back to Brownsville becomes a metaphorical journey backward in time so that the locale of the past becomes by degrees the past itself: Every time I go back to Brownsville it is as if I had never been away. It is over ten years since I left to live in the cityA— everything just out of Brownsville was always the city. Actually I did not go very far; it was enough that I could leave Brownsville. Yet as I walk those familiarly choked streets at dusk and see the old women sit- ting in front of the tenements, past and present become each others faces; I am back where I began (pp. 5-6). This is, in fact, what gives the book that quality of casual reminis- cence that Mr. Handlin found so unsatisfactory. Kazins technique in chapters one and three is much like that of a person rummaging through an attic full of memorabilia. Each street, each shop serves to spark a particular memory. There is, of course, a danger in this kind of writing. It teeters constantly on the brink of random sentimentalism. The walker always presents the past in a hypermediated form, never through the coolly objective (and hidden) eyes of the impartial self- historian that characterize most conventional autobiographies. This is particularly true when he indulges in nostalgia, as he does when the walker inspects that part of his neighborhood which has been rebuilt as a housing project. There he subjects us to a series of iterated fondnesses, each beginning with the nostalgic I miss (p. 3). But in spite of this flirtation with sentimentality, the walkers presence is not merely an occasion for self-indulgence. In the context of the whole memoir, it clearly serves instead to highlight the drama being played out between the quest of the child and the quest of the adult. As the walker nears the two significant centers of childhood and adolescence, in chapters two and four respectively, he underg oes a transformation. The mediatory presence of the walker disappears, leaving only the disembodied autobiographical voice of conventional memoirs. Unlike the first and third chapters, in which each memory was sparked by actual relics from the past, these chapters take place entirely in the autobiographers imagination. To mark this change, chapter two opens with the writers memory of a previous memory of his mothers kitchen which he compares with his present recollection of it: the last time I saw our kitchen this clearly was one afternoon in London at the end of the war, when I waited out the rain in the entrance to a music store. A radio was playing into the street, and standing there I heard a broadcast of the first Sabbath service from 332 biography Vol. , No. 4 Belsen Concentration Camp (p. 51). This is the voice, not of a rum- maging memory, but of pure disembodied memory. The vision of the kitchen is not sparked by another visit there. In fact, at the opening of chapter two we lose sight of the walker for the first time. The adult Kazins presence is signalled in chapters two and four, not by reference to his present surro undings, but by verb tense alone: It was from the El on its way to Coney Island that I caught my first full breath of the city in the open air (p. 37); although at times, he intrudes into the narrative by referring to his present feelings: I think now with a special joy of those long afternoons of mildew and quiet- ness in the school courtyard (p. 136). The adult walker, however, does not appear in these chapters at all. This transformation, from walker to disembodied memorial voice, draws the reader along the path followed by the adult quester: from the streets of the walkers Brownsville to the streets of the childs Brownsville. As the quester nears his goal, the present Brownsville fades from view. The narrative strategy of A Walker recreates the adults quest by revealing the increasing clarity and intensity of his perception of the childs world. The walkers mediatory presence, initially so conspicu- ous, deliquesces at crucial points so that memory becomes a direct act of identification between rememberer and remembered. The present tense of the walkers observations becomes the past tense of the walkers recollections which becomes the past tense of the writers memory which, finally, becomes the present tense of the childs world. The final identification of writer and child occurs in the two most intense moments of the memoir: at the end of The Kitchen (chapter two) and toward the end of Summer: The Way to Highland Park (chapter four). The first instance follows immediately upon the writers recollec- tion of the power of literature to bridge the gaps between himself and another world. He recalls the child reading an Alexander Kuprin story which takes place in the Crimea. In the story, an old man and a boy are wandering up a road. The old man says, Hoo! hoo! my son! how it is hot! (p. 73). Kazin recalls how completely he, as a young boy, had identified with them: when they stopped to eat by a cold spring, I could taste that bread, that salt, those tomatoes, that icy spring (p. 73). In the next and final paragraph of the chapter, the writer slips into the present tense: Now the light begins to die. Twilight is also the minds grazing time. Twilight is the bottom of that arc down which we have fallen the whole Hazlett repossessing the past 333 long day, but where I now sit at our cousins window in some strange silence of attention, watching the pigeons go round and round to the leafy smell of soupgreens from the stove. In the cool ofthat first evening hour, as I sit at the table waiting for supper and my father and the New York World, everything is so rich to overflowing, I hardly know where to begin, (p. 73) The place and the vision in this curious passage are the childs, but the voice is clearly the adults. Just as the child once tasted the bread, salt and tomatoes of his literary heroes, so now the adult writer achieves an intense identification with his own literary creation: his child self. He sees with the childs eyes, smells with the childs nose, feels the childs expectant emotions, but renders all these perceptions with the adults iterary sophistication. The intensity of expectation which the writer attributes to the child is amplified by the intensity of the writers expectation that the forthcoming richness is as much his as it is the childs. The childs expectations are, ultimately, of that New York world which he discovers in the following chapter. The writers expectations are of a comple tion of identity which can be accom- plished only through the mediation of form. Twilight and the New York World have become formal touchstones in the literary recreation of his self. The second instance takes place toward the end of the memoir and like the first, it immediately precedes a significant passage through to a world beyond the kitchen. Like the first, it also is a recollection of his home, at twilight, in the summer. And to emphasize its signifi- cance as a literary act, the writer echoes the Kuprin passage here: The kitchen is quiet under the fatigue blown in from the parched streetsA—so quiet that in this strangely drawn-out light, the sun hot on our backs, we seem to be eating hand in hand. How hot it is still! How hot still! The silence and calm press on me with a painful joy. I cannot wait to get out into the streets tonight, I cannot wait. Each unnatural moment of silence says that something is going on outside. Something is about to happen, (p. 164) The pages which follow this merging of writer and child, and which end the book, complete the childs emerging vision of his bridge to America. In these pages; the writer employs a new method of recap- turing and re-entering the past. The walk to Highland Park is under- taken by the adolescent and is recalled by the adult in the past tense, but it is given immediacy by the frequent interjection of the adverbial pointers now and here: Ahead of me now the black web of the 334 biography Vol. 7, No. 4 Fulton Street El (p. 168). Everything ahead of me now was of a dif- ferent order . . . Every image I had of peace, of quiet shaded streets in some old small-town America . . . now came back to me . . . Here were the truly American streets; here was where they lived (p. 169). The effect is peculiar, but appropriate. By using the adverbial pointers, here and now, together with the adults past tense, Kazin is able to convey the eerie impression that he is, finally, both here, in the adults present, and there, in the childs past. The bridge between them is complete. The complexity of perspective and structure in Kazins memoir caused Mr. Handlin to observe that chronology is abandoned so there is never any certainty of the sequence of events. In most autobio- graphies, the inevitable discontinuities between present and past selves are overcome by the construction of a continuous, causally developed, and therefore meaningful, story. By purposefully avoid- ing such a reconstruction with its solid assumptions of the reality of the selfs history and the ability of language to convey that reality with- out serious mediatory consequences, Kazin refocuses our attention on the autobiographer/historianA—not the past as it was, but history as recreated by the imagination. Self-history in A Walker is not continu- ous and linear, but spatial; the past is not a time, but a place. For the youth, it was a place from which he wanted to escape. For the adult, it is a place to which he fears to return (the old foreboding that all my life would be like this) and to which he feels he must return in order to complete and renew himself. The childs world seems timeless; it is frozen in a tableau, like a wax museum, in which the adult can explore, in a curiously literal manner, his own past. That some of the figures are missing or that the present may actually have vandalized the arrangement of props, only intensifies its apparent isolation from adult, historical life. This difference between the timelessness of childhood, as we per- ceive it in the memoir, and the adults implied immersion in history may illuminate the nature of the quest upon which the autobiographer has embarked. We can see, for instance, that the motivation which lies behind the quest for identity is grounded upon assumptions about the nature of life in history. The discontinuity felt by both the child and the adult is not simply between a Brownsville identity and an Ameri- can identity, but between the Timelessness which childhood repre- sents and History. Burton Pike, writing from a pyschoanalytic perspective, has sug- gested that autobiographies of childhood in general reveal a fascination Hazlett repossessing the past 335 with states of timelessness: the device of dwelling on childhood may also serve two other functions: It may be a way of blocking the ticking of the clock toward death, of which the adult is acutely aware, and it may also represent a deep fascination with death itself, the ultimately timeless state. 9 The adults return to Brownsville becomes, in this view, a journey motivated not simply by a desire for completion of identity, but also by a desire to escape the exigencies of historical life- death, as Pike asserts, and, perhaps more obviously, guilt. The writing of A Walker, Kazin says in New York Jew, was a clutch at my old innocence and the boy I remembered . . . was a necessary fiction, he was so virtuous. 10 What is of particular interest in Kazins memoir, however, is the manifest content of the childs quest whic h offers a counterpoint to Pikes useful analysis. The fascination in A Walker, works both ways: the adult longs for the childs timeless world and the child longs for the adults sense of history. Moreover, as the adolescent stands outside of America, he longs not only to possess a history of his own, but to enter history. The child is never interested in the past for its own sake; he wishes to be one of the crowd, to be swept along in the irrevocable onward rush of political and social events. Entering history for him is the clearest and most satisfying form of belonging. Kazins memoir is not, therefore, reducible to a psychoanalytical model. Since he always handles the issue of life in history consciously, it is difficult to approach the relationship between the autobiographer and time as though the writer were himself unaware of the implica- tions of his subject matter. His escape from history through the recovery of childhood was, at least on one level, a very conscious rejec- tion of the autobiographical form dictated by Marxist historicism and chosen by many leftist writers during the 30s, the period of his own coming-of-age. Writers in this older generation felt that successful self re-creation, both autobiographical and actual, could be accomplished only by determining ones position vis A vis a cosmic historical force. 11 Kazins choice of autobiographical form was partly a response to the effect that this philosophy had had on him as a young man. In his sec- ond memoir, Starting Out in the Thirties, Kazin recalls, with disillu- sionment, the sense of exhilaration that accompanied his own histori- cism during the Great Depression: History was going our way, and in our need was the very life-blood of history . . . The unmistakable and surging march of history might yet pass through me. There seemed to be no division between my efforts at personal liberation and the appar- ent effort of humanity to deliver itself. 12 One might argue, of course, that as an autobiography of childhood, 336 biography Vol. 7, No. 4 A Walker does not deal with the historical world, and therefore can- not address the problems of historicism. But to do so would be to ignore the overwhelming importance which Kazin places upon the relationship between the individual and history in all of his writings, and in particular in his autobiographical work. By emphasizing the adults role in the reconstruction of the child, and by creating a paral- lel between the older mans reconstruction of his childhood and the childs reconstruction of the American past, Kazin locates the source of historical meaning, whether personal or collective, in the historian and undermines historicisms claim that the past possesses meaning independent of human creation. Kazin does not, however, advocate a view of identity divorced from collective history, nor does he value the personal over the collective past. More than most autobiographers of childhood, Kazin has the sensibilities of a public man, a writer very much in and of the world. As we descend with him into the vortex of his reconstructed past, the larger world that he is leaving is always present or implied. More- over, Kazins return to his lost innocence provides more than a mere escape from history because the childhood he reconstructs was full of a longing for history, as we have seen. The childs Whitmanesque dream that he could become an American by assimilating Americas past was born of a belief that the collective past might somehow deliver him from us and them, from the feeling that as isolated indi- viduals (outside of history) we are meaningless. By 1951, when he wrote A Walker, he had indeed been delivered by his dream out of iso- lation, but the post-War, post-Holocaust America in which he found himself was not the one which his history had promised. It is in this context that the return to childhood must be read. The young Kazin had dreamed that collective history would be the salvation of the self; the older Kazin, even while remaining committed to collective history, realized that history, far from providing our salvation, was the very thing from which we must be saved. The power of A Walker ulti- mately derives from the tension between this commitment to our col- lective fate and the belief that our only salvation from that fate lies in a consciousness of the past. The adult walkers reconstruction of his childhood may have begun as an effort of the historical self to connect with an apparently ahistorical self, but the ironic achievement of that effort was the discovery that the earlier self had, in fact, been firmly grounded in history, the history of first generation immigrant Jews. The peculiar intensity with which Kazin identifies his personal past with the collective past raises questions about the relationship of both Hazlett repossessing the past 337 o the larger question of life in history and makes A Walker an interest- ing example of the options available to contemporary American auto- biographers. A Walker rejects the historicism of the 30s and the forms of the self that such historicism produced, but nevertheless maintains the belief that the self is never fully realized until it has defined its rela- tionship to the issues of the times; that is, to historical issues. It is precisely this belief which distinguishes Kazins autobiogra phy from other coming-of-age memoirs. On the surface, it appears to appeal to a private and psychological explanation of the self, but finally it relies firmly upon the belief that only the determination of our relationship to collective experience can provide our private selves with worth. This belief provides the motivation for the two quests discussed in the first half of this essay. In a Commentary article published in 1979, Kazin wrote that the most lasting autobiographies tend to be case histories limited to the self as its own history to begin with, then the self as the history of a particular moment and crisis in human history . . 13 In its presenta- tion of the latter, A Walker reflects not only the struggle of a first-gen- eration immigrant son to become an American, but also the struggle of the modern imagination, which has lost faith in either a divine or a cosmic ordering of history, to recreate a meaningful past. The life of mere experience, Kazin says in that article, and especially of history as the suppo sedly total experience we ridiculously claim to know, can seem an inexplicable series of unrelated moments. In A Walker, the child and the adult are both motivated by the autobiographical belief that history still constitutes meaning and identity; both yearn for con- tinuity. But by focusing on the context in which the past is reclaimed, Kazin emphasizes the difficulties and limitations of his task and places it on the insecure basis which attends every human effort to create meaning. Such an approach to the relationship between history and the self demands finally that the walker be able to tread a tightrope between the reality of the past and the solipsism toward which a reliance on imagination and language tends. Burton Pike has stated that as the twentieth century began, belief in History as a sustaining external principle collapsed, and suggests that the term autobiography cannot accurately be said to apply to twentieth century forms of self-writing since it might best be regarded as a historical term, applicable only to a period roughly corre- sponding to the nineteenth century; that period when, in European thought, an integrity of personal identity corresponded to a belief in the integrity of cultural conventions. 14 By using as his examples 338 biography Vol. 7, No. 4 authors who had come to autobiography from the Modernist move- ment (he mentions Musil, Stein, Rilke, Mailer), Pike has certainly overestimated the impact of Modernism (which relativized and internalized time) on our basic conception of history. Even within the literary community (and particularly among those, like Kazin, who were raised in a leftist political tradition), there was widespread resis- tance to ideas of time that impinged upon the nineteenth century notions of history. The weakest point in Pikes argument is, in fact, his failure to acknowledge the strength of the Marxist legacy in twentieth century thought, and in particular the effect of historicism on modern autobiographies. Even Kazins A Walker, in spite of its rejection of ideological historicism and its attention to the subjectivity of the self- writer, retains a belief in history as fate. Perhaps the significance of Kazins book lies in its revelation of one mans response to the dilemma of his generation: their vision of the self, which was shaped and sustained by historicism, collapsed just when they were about to enter upon the stage of history. Confronted with the collapse of this sustaining external principle autobio- graphers committed to the idea of life in history were faced with the difficult task of defining anew how one might transcend the inexplic- able series of unrelated moments that constitute our daily experience. Kazins return to childhood in A Walker is one answer. Other autobio- graphers are still trying, with varying degrees of success, to find sub- stantial historical movements and directions with which to structure the past, give meaning to the present, and help predict the future. Even a cursory glance at contemporary autobiographical writing reveals that there are many ways to do this; most clearly it can be seen in the increasing numbers of autobiographies written by members of newly self-conscious groupsA—Blacks, women, gays, a generation. The belief held by each of these groups that their time has come is a form of historicism (frequently unconscious) that allows the individual autobiographer to transcend mere experience by identifying him/herself with the historical realization of the groups identity. They provide ample evidence that autobiographies, even at this late post- Modernist date, remain both a literary and a historical form. 15 University of Iowa NOTES 1. A Walker in the City (New York: Harcourt Brace World, 1951). AU subsequent references to this book will be given in the body of the text. Hazlett repossessing the past 339 2. John Paul Eakin, Kazins Bridge to America, South Atlantic Quarterly, 77 (Win- ter 1978), 43. This article provides an excellent summary and discussion of the coming-of-age aspect of the memoir. Readers interested in a thorough reading of the memoir are referred to Sherman Paul, Alfred Kazin, Repossessing and Renewing: Essays in The Green American Tradition (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. , 1976), pp. 236-62. 3. Oscar Handlin, rev. f A Walker in the City, Saturday Review of Literature, 17 November 1951, p. 14. 4. One might add that most autobiographies are structured in this way: on the one hand, the explicit journey of the youthful I toward manhood, and, ulti- mately, toward a complete identification with the narrative I; on the other hand, the implicit journey of the adult, narrative I backward in time to find an earlier self, Kazins memoir is distinguished by the wa y in which it makes this second journey such an important and explicit aspect of the narrative. . (New York: Harvest, 1942). 6. New York Jew, (New York: Vintage, 1979), p. 313. 7. New York Jew, p. 320. 8. Kazins loss of his childhood is reflected indirectly in On Native Grounds, the monumental literary history that culminated his search for an American past. That work conspicuously omits any discussion of the contribution of Jews to American literature. Thus, Robert Towers remarks in Tales of Manhattan (New York Review of Books, May 18, 1978, p. 2): The great immigration of East European Jews passes unnoticed, as though it had never happened as though it had not deposited Alfred Kazins bewildered parents on the Lower East side. So powerful has been the subsequent impact of Jewish writing upon our consciousness that it seems incredible that Kazin should have found noth- ing to say about its early manifestations in a history so inclusive as On Native Grounds. 9. Time in Autobiograph y, Comparative Literature, 28 (Fall 1976), 335. 10. New York Jew, pp. 232 and 321 respectively. The return to childhood as renewal through reconnection with an earlier, innocent self is common to many auto- biographies and most eloquently expressed in William Wordsworths The Prel- ude: There are in our existence spots of time,/That with distinct pre-emi- nence retain/A renovating virtue, whence . . . our